Social Sciences
| Open Access |
DOI: Environmental Implications of Ozone-Depleting Substances: A Critical Assessment of Global and National Mitigation Strategies
Marcellina Okim , City University, Cambodia Gloria Chigbu , Anchor University Lagos, Nigeria Osazuwa M. Christopher , Miva University, Abuja Maryjane Y. Oghogho , City University, CambodiaAbstract
Stratospheric ozone depletion remains a critical environmental and public health concern, driven by emissions of ozone-depleting substances (ODS) from industrial, agricultural, and domestic sources. Despite the near-universal global commitment demonstrated by the ratification of the Montreal Protocol by nearly 200 countries, operational implementation gaps hinder the complete recovery of the ozone layer. This research examines the environmental consequences of ozone- depleting substances (ODS) and evaluates the efficacy of both global and national mitigation strategies. The objectives include examining global progress in ODS reduction, evaluating national implementation performance, analysing existing policy instruments, identifying persistent challenges, and exploring associated co-benefits and trade-offs. This study employs a qualitative research design informed by the Multi-Level Perspective (MLP) theory of socio-technical transitions, utilising secondary data sourced from peer-reviewed literature, international environmental reports, and reputable datasets such as OWID. A systematic review and thematic content analysis were utilised to synthesise insights in accordance with the research objectives. Research indicates that global ODS emissions have decreased by more than 99% since 1989 due to the Montreal Protocol's regulatory framework, with observable trends of ozone recovery in recent decades. National-level implementation is inconsistent, especially in developing economies, where challenges include informal service networks, limited technician capacity, weak enforcement mechanisms, and slow adoption of low global warming potential (GWP) substitutes. Legacy refrigerant banks pose risks, and the climate trade-offs linked to high-GWP alternatives remain significant. The study concludes that the effectiveness of the global governance architecture depends on strengthening national enforcement systems, expediting low-GWP transitions, expanding reclamation infrastructure, and incorporating ozone-climate-health policies to ensure equitable environmental benefits.
Keywords
Ozone depletion, ozone-depleting substances, Montreal Protocol
References
Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2021). Thematic analysis: A practical guide. SAGE.
Chipperfield, M. P. (2024). Stratospheric ozone – depletion, recovery and new challenges.
Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, 24, 2783–2808. https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-24- 2783-2024
COP Alliance. (2023). ODS/HFC reclamation and destruction: A review of global banks and destruction projects. https://www.copalliance.org/imglib/publications/COPA_Publication_ODS_HFC_%20De struction_Reclamation.pdf
Dreyfus, G. B. (2024). A method for calculating offsets to ozone depletion, climate forcing, and other environmental impacts. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, 24(2023). https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-24-2023-2024
Egorova, T., Sedlacek, J., Sukhodolov, T., Karagodin-Doyennel, A., Zilker, F., & Rozanov, E. (2023). Montreal Protocol’s impact on the ozone layer and climate. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, 23, 5135–5147. https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-23-5135-2023
Geels, F. W. (2002). Technological transitions as evolutionary reconfiguration processes: A multi-level perspective and a case-study. Research Policy, 31(8–9), 1257–1274. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0048-7333(02)00062-8
Geels, F. W. (2020). Micro-foundations of socio-technical transitions theory. Technological Forecasting and Social Change, 152, 119894. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techfore.2019.119894
Government of India, Ozone Cell. (2023). HCFC Phase-out Management Plan (HPMP Stage- III). https://ozonecell.nic.in/wp-content/uploads/2023/09/2-HPMP-Stage-III.pdf
Grant, G. J., et al. (2024). A narrative review of the impact of ultraviolet radiation and human health. Public Health Practice, XX(X), xxx–xxx. https://doi.org/10.1111/phpp.12943
Grant, W. B., et al. (2024). UV radiation exposure and evolving public-health risks.
Photochemical & Photobiological Sciences, 23(1), 56–70. https://doi.org/10.1007/s43630-023-00399-w
Kellner, E. (2024). Polycentric climate governance and legitimacy. Global Environmental Politics, 24(3), 24–45. https://doi.org/10.1162/glep_a_00678
Lester, J. G., et al. (2024). Changes in oceanic radiocarbon and CFCs since the 1990s. Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans. https://doi.org/10.1029/2023JC020387
Liaqat, W., et al. (2023). Ultraviolet-B radiation in relation to agriculture in the context of climate change: Responses and adaptation. Frontiers in Plant Science.
https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2023.xxxxxx
Liu, H., Duan, H., Zhang, N., Ma, Y., Liu, G., Miller, T. R., Mao, R., Xu, M., Li, J., & Yang, J. (2024). Rethinking time-lagged emissions and abatement potential of fluorocarbons in the post-Kigali Amendment era. Nature Communications, 15, Article 6687. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-024-51113-2
Liu, H., et al. (2024). Managing fluorocarbon banks to secure climate co-benefits. Nature Communications, 15, 6687. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-024-51113-2
Multilateral Fund for the Implementation of the Montreal Protocol. (2024). Report of the Ninety- Fourth Meeting of the Executive Committee (Agenda items and project proposals). https://www.multilateralfund.org/94/Agenda%20item%209c%20Projects%20recommended%20for%20blanket%20ap/1/9447.pdf
Multilateral Fund Secretariat. (2023). Progress report on the HCFC phase-out management plan (HPMP) — Nigeria (Project documents). https://www.multilateralfund.org/
Multilateral Fund Secretariat. (2024). Executive Committee report 94: HPMP implementation performance. https://www.multilateralfund.org
Neale, P. J., et al. (2025). Environmental consequences of interacting effects of changes in stratospheric ozone, solar ultraviolet radiation, and climate on the environment and human health. Photochemical & Photobiological Sciences. https://doi.org/10.1007/s43630-025-00687-x
Neale, R. E., et al. (2025). Environmental UV exposure and plant–human health interactions.
Global Change Biology, 31(2), 1021–1035. https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.17115
NOAA Global Monitoring Laboratory. (2024). Ozone-Depleting Gas Index (ODGI) and long- term observations. NOAA/GML. https://gml.noaa.gov/odgi/
NRDC. (2024, July 26). Countries advancing climate protection through HFC phasedown. https://www.nrdc.org/bio/jeff-fralick/countries-advancing-climate-protection-through- hfc-phasedown
Ostrom, E. (2010). Beyond markets and states: Polycentric governance of complex economic systems. American Economic Review, 100(3), 641–672. https://doi.org/10.1257/aer.100.3.641
Our World in Data. (n.d.). Countries subscribed to the Montreal Protocol – Our World in Data. Retrieved from https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/countries-to-montreal-protocol-and- vienna-convention
Park, W. Y., Shah, N., Vine, E., Blake, P., Holuj, B., Kim, J. H., & Kim, D. H. (2021). Ensuring
the climate benefits of the Montreal Protocol: Global governance architecture for cooling efficiency and alternative refrigerants. Energy Research & Social Science, 76, 101960. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.erss.2021.101960
Perry, C. (2024). More to offer from the Montreal Protocol: how the ozone-depleting substances (ODS) framework remains relevant. International Environmental Agreements: Politics, Law and Economics. https://doi.org/10.1080/1943815X.2024.2362124
Snyder, H. (2019). Literature review as a research methodology. Journal of Business Research, 104, 333–339. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2019.07.039
Tan, T., Rennels, L., & Parthum, B. (2024). The social cost of HFC emissions and their phasedown benefits. Nature Climate Change, 14(1), 55–60. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41558-023-01898-9
UNDP Nigeria. (2019–2023). HCFC Phase-out Management Plan (HPMP) Stage reports and project pages. https://www.undp.org/nigeria/projects/hcfc-phase-out-management-plan- stage-2-nigeria-hpmp-ii
UNEP Ozone Secretariat. (2025, May 2). TEAP Progress Report Vol. 1 – May 2025. https://ozone.unep.org/system/files/documents/TEAP-May2025-Progress-Report- vol1.pdf
UNEP Ozone Secretariat. (n.d.). Country profile: China. https://ozone.unep.org/countries/profile/chn
UNEP. (2025). Technology and Economic Assessment Panel Progress Report. https://ozone.unep.org
UNIDO. (2023, January). Preparing for HCFC phase-out: Fundamentals of uses, process options and technologies. United Nations Industrial Development Organization. https://www.unido.org/sites/default/files/unido-publications/2023-01/Preparing-for- HCFC-phase-out-en.pdf
UNIDO. (2024). Nigeria – HPMP Stage III, Tranche documents and progress reports (project PDF). https://downloads.unido.org/ot/34/69/34698005/3.%20Nigeria%20%E2%80%93%20HP MP%20Stage%20III%2C%20second%20tranche%20%E2%80%93%20project.pdf
United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). (n.d.). HCFC Phase-out Management Plan (Stage II) – Nigeria (HPMP-II). UNDP Nigeria. https://www.undp.org/nigeria/projects/hcfc-phase-out-management-plan-stage-2-nigeria- hpmp-ii
United Nations Environment Programme. (2025). Technology and Economic Assessment Panel Progress Report – May 2025. https://ozone.unep.org
van den Oever, A. E. M., et al. (2024). Revisiting the challenges of ozone depletion in life‐cycle impact assessment. Science of the Total Environment: X. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.stoxx.2024.100253
WMO & UNEP. (2022). Scientific Assessment of Ozone Depletion: 2022. https://ozone.unep.org World Bank. (2024). China HCFC Phase-out implementation status and results report (project document). https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/099122624064536948/pdf/P15639717a2c4 a0541b2961396de607db6a.pdf
World Meteorological Organization & United Nations Environment Programme (WMO & UNEP). (2022). Scientific Assessment of Ozone Depletion: 2022 (WMO Global Atmosphere Watch Report No. 278). https://ozone.unep.org/sites/default/files/2023- 02/Scientific-Assessment-of-Ozone-Depletion-2022.pdf
Wu, Z., et al. (2025). Climate benefits from China’s adherence to the Kigali Amendment. Cell Reports Sustainability. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.xcrs.2025.100127
Wu, Z., et al. (2025). Climate implications of Kigali Amendment compliance. Cell Reports Sustainability, 2(1), 100127. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.xcrs.2025.100127
Download and View Statistics
Copyright License
Copyright (c) 2026 Marcellina Okim, Gloria Chigbu, Osazuwa M. Christopher, Maryjane Y. Oghogho
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
Authors retain the copyright of their manuscripts, and all Open Access articles are disseminated under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License 4.0 (CC-BY), which licenses unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided that the original work is appropriately cited. The use of general descriptive names, trade names, trademarks, and so forth in this publication, even if not specifically identified, does not imply that these names are not protected by the relevant laws and regulations.