Workplace accidents remain a significant concern in high-risk industries, such as oil servicing, where employees face substantial safety risks due to complex operations and hazardous environments. This study examined the prevalence of workplace accidents, their causes, and how they occur in specific oil servicing firms in Nigeria. The issue is that safety management remains inadequate, despite existing regulations. This results in numerous accidents and health hazards at work. The study aims to identify the types of incidents and their frequency, investigate underlying causes, and suggest methods to enhance workplace safety. Grounded in Heinrich’s Domino Theory of accident causation, the research adopts a descriptive survey design to explore accident trends and contributing behaviours. Data were collected using structured questionnaires distributed to 120 respondents across four oil servicing companies. Purposive sampling ensured that participants were operational staff directly exposed to safety-critical environments. Quantitative data were analysed using chi-square tests, percentages, and frequency distribution tables to examine the relationships between safety measures and the prevalence of accidents. The findings reveal that the most common types of accidents include slips, falls, injuries from equipment, and exposure to hazardous substances. Contributing factors encompass improper use of personal protective equipment (PPE), inadequate safety training, and poor enforcement of safety regulations. There was a strong correlation between the effectiveness of safety measures and the number of accidents. The article concludes that regular training, strict enforcement of safety protocols, and investment in new safety equipment are all crucial. The study recommends strengthening regulatory oversight and cultivating a proactive safety culture to mitigate risks in the oil servicing sector.

Workplace accidents, oil servicing companies, safety management

Abanum, A., & Alabere, I. (2020). Compliance evaluation of IOGP Life-Saving Rules amongst petroleum industry workers in Delta State, Nigeria. IOSR Journal of Environmental Science, Toxicology and Food Technology, 14(10), 35–43. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/344498891

Adakporia, M., & Ajiroghene, R. (2020). AI-enabled classification systems in occupational reporting. Nigerian Journal of Occupational Health, 14(2), 88–96. https://www.njoh.org/adakporia2020.pdf

Adeyemo, M. (2024). Injury prevalence in Nigeria's construction sector: Comparative risks across regions. Nigerian Journal of Occupational Safety, 19(1), 22–33.

Adimora, N. U., Arokoyu, S. B., & Lawal, O. (2023). Perception of safety culture amongst Nigerian oil and gas workers in Rivers State. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/370806208

Ajayi, S., & Oyedele, L. (2020). Expert-driven hazard modelling in high-risk construction environments. Journal of Safety Science, 130, 104877.

Ajmal, M., Isha, A., Sabir, A., & Nordin, S. (2021). Management commitment to safety and safety training: mediating role of safety compliance for occupational accidents a study on oil and gas industry of malaysia. Academic Journal of Social Sciences (Ajss ), 5(3), 303-318. https://doi.org/10.54692/ajss.2021.05031608

Akpan, S. S., & Esang, A. U. (2024). Employer’s liability insurance and employee’s value added in Nigeria’s petroleum industry (2015–2023). ResearchGate Preprint.

AKYILDIZ, C. (2023). Integration of digitalization into occupational health and safety and its applicability: a literature review. The European Research Journal, 9(6), 1509-1519. https://doi.org/10.18621/eurj.1352743

Alrbaihat, A. (2023). Systemic causes of mechanical failures in petrochemical industries: A design- integrated view. Journal of Process Safety Engineering, 11(2), 101–115.

Anderson, P., Lim, C. H., & Fong, K. (2023). Cognitive failures and industrial safety: Behavioral predictors of workplace incidents in repetitive environments. Journal of Occupational Safety and Ergonomics, 29(1), 45–60. https://doi.org/10.1080/10803548.2023.1882457

Awini, A., Opoku, D., Ayisi‐Boateng, N., Osarfo, J., Sulemana, A., Yankson, I., … & Newton, S. (2023). Prevalence and determinants of occupational injuries among emergency medical technicians in northern ghana. Plos One, 18(4), e0284943. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0284943

Bashar, H. M., Okeke, I. J., & Nwachukwu, L. (2024). Organizational culture and safety compliance in high-risk industries. Global Journal of Industrial Risk Management, 5(2), 45–59.

Bena, R. A. (2019). The role of industrial development in Nigeria’s transformation from oil to cities: The case of Birnin Kebbi. In A. A. Okoye & A. N. Chikere (Eds.), Industrial and Urban Growth Policies at the Sub-National Level (pp. 206–221). IGI Global. https://www.igi-global.com/chapter/the- role-of-industrial-development-in-nigerias-transformation-from-oil-to-cities/222085

Brkić, A., & Praks, P. (2021). Emergency preparedness and incident severity in offshore hydrocarbon facilities. Safety Science, 140, 105288. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssci.2021.105288

Carroll, J. S., & Fahlbruch, B. (2023). Beyond binary classifications: A continuum approach to occupational accident severity. Journal of Risk Research, 26(1), 1–19.

Chen, Y., Zhang, L., & Li, X. (2020). System dynamics modeling for subcontractor safety management in construction. Journal of Construction Engineering and Management, 146(4), 04020023. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)CO.1943-7862.0001781

Chukwuma, P. N. (2025). Correlate of outsourcing and organizational productivity in the plastic industry: A study of Innoson Technical and Industrial Company, Emene, Enugu, Nigeria [PDF]. Academia.edu. https://www.academia.edu/download/70121733/D2309031827.pdf

Cookey-Gam, I. F., Ogbonda, P. I., Ogba, A. A., & Bruce, I. (2023). Prevalence and frequency of psychological stress indicators among occupational workers in the oil and gas industries in Port Harcourt. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/390009794

Corporate Affairs Commission. (2018). Industrial workforce statistics bulletin. Federal Government of Nigeria.

Cox, T., & Griffiths, A. (2021). Psychological aspects of occupational injury: Expanding classification systems. Occupational Medicine, 71(2), 103–110. https://doi.org/10.1093/occmed/kqaa194

Dyreborg, J., Thorsen, S. V., Madsen, C. U., & Hasle, P. (2024). Effectiveness of OHS classification systems in predicting workplace injury patterns. Safety Science, 165, 106910. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssci.2024.106910

Echendu, A., & Georgeou, N. (2021). 'Not going to plan': Urban planning, flooding, and sustainability in Port Harcourt City, Nigeria. Urban Forum, 32(4), 495–515. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12132-021- 09420-0

Edem, M. J., Etuk, H. O., & Bassey, B. E. (2021). Assessment of safety management practices in Nigeria’s oil and gas industry. British Journal of Environmental Sciences, 9(2), 55–67.

Edward-Odoi, C. A. D., & Jaja, S. A. (2016). Workplace safety practices and organisational adaptation in the Nigerian petroleum industry. International Journal of Humanities and Social Science, 6(8), 112–122. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/305108912

Ehiaguina, E., Nnadi, B. C., & Rangarajan, R. (2024). Safety culture assessment in petroleum industry: Cross-sectional survey of workers’ safety performance in the Niger Delta Region, Nigeria. Safety in Extreme Environments. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42797-024-00104-z

Ekong, A. E., & Ogunbanwo, B. M. (2023). Impact of process safety culture on employee safety motivation in selected oil and gas industries in Nigeria. Journal of Scientific Research and Reports, 29(4), 46–60. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/377019907

Esan, B. A., Ogundele, T. S., & Folarin, A. M. (2020). Environmental risks and occupational safety: A Nigerian oil industry analysis. Journal of Environmental Protection, 11(4), 88–99.

Esitikot, E. L., & Obadimu, C. O. (2024). Impacts of safety incentive programmes on occupational health and safety in the Nigerian oil and gas industry. American Journal of Business, Management, Economics and Banking, 8(2), 34–47. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/385746768

European Agency for Safety and Health at Work (EU-OSHA). (2021). European statistics on accidents at work (ESAW) methodology. Retrieved from https://osha.europa.eu/en

Eyetan, T., & Ozabor, F. (2021). Oil spills deposits effect on soil physicochemical properties in Port Harcourt metropolis: Implication for agricultural planning. Journal of Management and Social Sciences, 10(1), 44–58. Retrieved from https://www.credence- publishing.com/journal/uploads/archive/202316728507286415202772.pdf

Ezeaku, P. I., & Ogundele, A. T. (2020). Characterization of alluvial soils under mangrove vegetation in the Niger Delta for agricultural use. Water, Air, & Soil Pollution, 231(2), 84. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11270-024-07209-y

Ezejiofor, T. I. N. (2014). Risk assessment re-appraisals for potential hazards in the operational environment and facilities of petroleum refining and distribution industry in Nigeria. Occupational Medicine & Health Affairs, 2(6), 1–6. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/276235845

Ezenwa, A. O. (2021). Cultural drivers of occupational accidents in Nigeria’s oil sector. African Journal of Occupational Health, 19(3), 151–163.

Ezenwa, A. O. (2021). Occupational safety research in sub-Saharan Africa: Gaps and priorities.

International Journal of Workplace Health, 9(1), 45–59.

Farooq, S. (2025). Categorizing equipment-related incidents in predictive models. International Journal of Industrial Ergonomics, 95, 103445. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ergon.2024.103445

Genty, M. A., Abiola, K. O., & Chukwu, J. E. (2022). Training efficacy and safety behavior in oil servicing companies. Journal of Petroleum Safety Engineering, 14(1), 77–86.

George, I. I., Nawawi, M. G. M., Mohd, Z. J., & Farah, B. S. (2024). Environmental effects from petroleum product transportation spillage in Nigeria: A critical review. Environmental Science and Pollution Research. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11356-023-31117-z

Giraud, P., & Montmayeul, R. (2022). Functional damage as a classification in offshore operations. Journal of Loss Prevention in the Process Industries, 75, 104650.

Goetsch, D. L. (2019). Occupational Safety and Health for Technologists, Engineers, and Managers. Pearson.

Gomaa, A. E., et al. (2015). Occupational slips, trips, and falls in hospital settings: Contributing factors and injury trends. Journal of Safety Research, 52, 85–92. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsr.2014.12.002

Grabowski, M., & Roberts, K. H. (2020). Cascading failures and system accidents in maritime and offshore energy operations. Safety Science, 128, 104754. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssci.2020.104754

Guida, M., et al. (2020). Chemical risk assessment in petroleum refineries: Health outcomes of prolonged exposure. International Archives of Occupational and Environmental Health, 93(6), 753–765.

Hollnagel, E. (2021). Resilience engineering and the limits of conventional accident models. In Safety-I and Safety-II (2nd ed., pp. 107–126). CRC Press https://doi.org/10.1201/9781315607465

Hopkins, A. (2009). Failure to Learn: The BP Texas City Refinery Disaster. CCH Australia.

Ibe, C. F., & Ugochukwu, I. M. (2024). Soil stratification and land-use implications in deltaic levees: A study of Port Harcourt, Nigeria. Nigerian Agricultural and Soil Journal, 21(1), 66–81.

International Labour Organization. (2021). International labour standards on occupational safety and health. https://www.ilo.org/global/standards/subjects-covered-by-international-labour- standards/occupational-safety-and-health/lang--en/index.htm

Jayady, A. A., et al. (2024). Vulnerability of contract workers in oil fields: Safety enforcement disparities. Journal of Petroleum Safety, 8(1), 40–52.

Jiang, W., Han, W., Zhou, J., & Huang, Z. (2020). Analysis of human factors relationship in hazardous chemical storage accidents. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(17), 6217. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17176217

Juhari, N. H., Mohd, Z. A., & Rahman, R. A. (2023). Economic implications of workplace accidents in developing countries: Evidence from Malaysia’s oil and gas industry. Journal of Risk Management and Insurance, 45(3), 122–136. https://doi.org/10.21315/jrmi2023.45.3.9

Juhari, S. N., et al. (2023). Fall accidents among construction workers in Malaysia: Patterns and countermeasures. Journal of Construction Safety Management, 15(3), 73–89.

Khairuddin, A., Lee, S. Y., & Nor, M. F. (2022). Using NLP for accident report classification in high-risk industries. Expert Systems with Applications, 197, 116678.

Leveson, N. (2020). Engineering a safer world: Systems thinking applied to safety. MIT Press.

Lin, C., Xu, Q., & Huang, Y. (2021). Applications of ffta–hfacs for analyzing human and organization factors in electric misoperation accidents. Applied Sciences, 11(19), 9008. https://doi.org/10.3390/app11199008

Liu, S., Nkrumah, E., Akoto, L., Gyabeng, E., & Nkrumah, E. (2020). The state of occupational health and safety management frameworks (ohsmf) and occupational injuries and accidents in the ghanaian oil and gas industry: assessing the mediating role of safety knowledge. Biomed Research International, 2020(1). https://doi.org/10.1155/2020/6354895

Lundberg, J., Rollenhagen, C., & Hollnagel, E. (2020). The role of categorization in accident analysis.

Safety Science, 122, 104537. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssci.2019.104537

Maduabuchi, E., Ugbebor, J. N., & Oyet, G. I. (2023). Analysis of critical risk factors in five iconic major accidents in petroleum and chemical industries. Journal of Scientific Research and Reports, 35(5), 88–103. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/375577524

Mohammadfam, I., Moghimbeigi, A., & Zarei, E. (2021). Lean safety: Integrating lean manufacturing principles in occupational health. Journal of Safety Research, 73, 250–260. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsr.2020.12.004

Nowakowska, A., & Pajęcki, T. (2022). Economic impact of accident classification systems across firm sizes. Journal of Occupational Safety and Ergonomics, 28(3), 341–353.

Nwankwo, C., & Adegoke, A. (2018). Contractor safety integration in oilfield operations. Nigerian Journal of Industrial Safety, 5(2), 83–94.

Nwankwo, C., Arewa, A., Theophilus, S., & Esenowo, V. (2021). Analysis of accidents caused by human factors in the oil and gas industry using the hfacs-ogi framework. International Journal of Occupational Safety and Ergonomics, 28(3), 1642-1654. https://doi.org/10.1080/10803548.2021.1916238

Nwankwo, C., Omodu, E., & Egesi, I. (2021). Emotional strain and safety outcomes in oilfield workers: A human factors perspective. Journal of Occupational Psychology, 17(2), 89–106.

Nwaogazie, I. L., & Ekwemuka, J. N. (2015). Assessment of workplace stressors in oil & gas companies in Port Harcourt. International Journal of Current Advanced Research. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/281864436

Nwaogazie, I. L., Oyamienlen, O., & Patricks, C. (2023). Risk matrix as a tool for risk analysis for work- related hazard in offshore installation in the oil and gas industry. ResearchGate Preprint. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/368595644

Nwaogazie, I. L., Oyamienlen, O., & Patricks, C. (2023). The effect of demographic factors on work- related injuries in the oil and gas industry in the Niger Delta Region.

O’Connor, A., Peckham, T., & Seixas, N. (2020). Considering work arrangement as an “exposure” in occupational health research and practice. Frontiers in Public Health, 8. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2020.00363

Obiora, C. A., Ani, K. J., Chukwuemeka, E., & Ezeh, L. N. (2023). Motivation-satisfaction-productivity triad: The moderating role of safety culture among employees in oil and gas firms in Niger Delta. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/372441806

Ogbonna, I., & Ugochukwu, U. (2019). Using expert elicitation to assess pipeline safety risks. Safety in Nigeria Journal, 12(1), 44–56.

Ogundele, A. A., Musa, L. T., & Eke, F. E. (2022). Behavior-based safety in Nigeria’s high-risk industries. African Journal of Industrial Psychology, 17(4), 122–139.

Okeke, K. K., Mode, A. W., Anigbogu, E. C., & Umeadi, I. M. (2023). Source rock potential, palynofacies depositional environment synthesis and structural traps of the Enugu Formation Southeastern Region, Nigeria. Arabian Journal of Geosciences, 16, 784. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12517-023- 11418-w

Okezie, E. O., Nwaogazie, I. L., & Chinemerem, P. (2023). Organizational factors and safety performance levels among local and multinational oil and gas companies in the Niger Delta region of Nigeria. ResearchGate Preprint. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/368234287

Okoye, P. U., & Okolie, K. C. (2020). Reactive versus preventive safety in Nigeria’s oil sector: A critical review. Safety Science Journal, 65(3), 201–218.

Olaniran, H. F., & Akinbile, B. F. (2023). A comparative analysis of construction and oil and gas industry's health and safety practices in Nigeria. Frontiers in Engineering and Built Environment, 3(2). https://doi.org/10.1108/febe-01-2023-0001

Omofowa, S., AKHIDUE-OGOGO, R., Nwachukwu, C., & Lam, T. (2021). Best practices for employees’ workplace health and safety mediating role of organizational culture. https://doi.org/10.4108/eai.7- 6-2021.2308606

Ononogbo, C., & Ohwofadjeke, P. O. (2023). Effect of human activities on the environment: Case study of oil facilities security services in Nigeria. International Journal of Advanced Environmental Research, 5(1), 112–125. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/375994952

Onyekachi, R. I. (2022). Safety practices in indigenous oil servicing companies in the Niger Delta. Journal of Occupational Risk Management, 14(2), 112–130.

Orisakwe, O. E. (2021). Crude oil and public health issues in Niger Delta, Nigeria: Much ado about the inevitable. Environmental Research, 194, 110688 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2021.110688

Orr, R. (2022). The human side of offshore oil and gas safety: A thematic exploration. Journal of Workplace Health & Safety, 70(6), 255–267.

Ozabor, F., Wekpe, V. O., & Tega, E. (2024). Spatial assessment of pollutants concentration in air and soils impacted by industrial wastes in Lagos State, Nigeria. Environmental Research Communications, 6(3), 035008. https://doi.org/10.1088/2515-7620/ad5790

Parasram, R., et al. (2024). Root cause evaluation of trip and shock hazards in oil refineries. Safety & Reliability Journal, 18(1), 112–126.

Parasram, R., Socias-Morales, C., & Reichard, A. A. (2022). Severe occupational injuries in the U.S. oil and gas extraction industry, 2015–2022. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 64(11), 853–864. https://doi.org/10.1097/JOM.0000000000002631

Phelps, R., Jansz, J., Chang, P., & Ghosh, A. (2024). The post-harmonisation health and safety challenges of construction industry managers. Safety, 10(4), 98. https://doi.org/10.3390/safety10040098

Priyanka, D., & Basaria, I. (2023). Application of HIRARC methodology in Indonesian manufacturing plants: A practical approach to accident reduction. International Journal of Safety Engineering, 17(2), 77–89. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijse.2023.04.002

Puspa, S. & Widanarko, B. (2022). Multilayered safety management in industrial operations. International Journal of Occupational Safety, 11(1), 25–40.

Puspa, W. W., & Widanarko, B. (2024). Causal analysis of recordable injuries in oil and gas industries using HFACS-OGI. Journal of Occupational Safety and Ergonomics, 30(2), 175–188.

Putri, W. A., Santoso, B., & Arifin, M. (2024). Standard operating procedures adherence and safety outcomes in Southeast Asian industrial plants. Asian Journal of Occupational Health, 12(1), 31–44. https://doi.org/10.32798/ajoh.2024.12.1.031

Reason, J. (1990). Human Error. Cambridge University Press.

Rosness, R., & Antonsen, S. (2024). Acute and cumulative injuries: Time-based classification in industrial safety. Safety Science, 169, 106989.

Salminen, S. (2023). Severity ratings and injury classification in industrial incident analysis. Journal of Safety Research, 86, 170–178. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsr.2023.01.007

Saragih, A. H., & Fitriani, R. (2024). Risk control frameworks in high-risk work environments: Evaluating the HIRARC model in practice. Indonesian Journal of Industrial Safety, 11(1), 14–28. https://doi.org/10.2991/ijis.v11i1.2024.2

Shappell, S. A., & Wiegmann, D. A. (2000). The Human Factors Analysis and Classification System– HFACS. Office of Aviation Medicine Report, FAA.

Sothivanan, S., Gunasegaran, P., & Lin, C. (2025). Organizational safety culture and accident prevention: Evidence from heavy industries. Safety Science Quarterly, 9(2), 89–105. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssci.2025.02.008

Sudiarno, A., & Maharani, N. (2024). Hierarchy of controls as a framework for workplace safety in Southeast Asia’s oil servicing firms. Journal of Occupational Risk Analysis, 6(4), 101–115. https://doi.org/10.3390/jora6040101

Tayab, A. R., et al. (2023). Hydrocarbon process safety failures: A statistical review of incident reports.

Process Safety and Environmental Protection, 169, 241–250.

Weber, M., & Krahé, B. (2022). Reporting biases in workplace safety statistics: A case study in subcontracted oil operations. Journal of Safety Research, 80, 120–128. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsr.2021.11.003

Wingate, T., et al. (2023). Electrocution hazards in aged oilfield infrastructure: A North American review. Energy Safety Review, 17(2), 95–109.

Zacchaeus, S., Ugbebor, J., Agbagwa, B., & Orikpete, B. (2023). Risk-based modelling in Nigerian oil and gas operations: An integrated hazard assessment approach. Nigerian Journal of Safety and Engineering, 10(1), 13–31.

Zailani, S., Olumide, A., & Musa, R. (2022). Compliance behavior in the oil and gas industry: A Nigerian perspective.