Methodology for Ensuring Safety and Operational Reliability of Reusable Launch Vehicle Composite Structures under High-Intensity Vibroacoustic Loads

The monograph examines a probabilistic, damage-tolerant methodology for ensuring the safety and operational reliability of reusable launch vehicle composite structures subjected to high-intensity vibroacoustic loads. The study is motivated by the rapid expansion of reusable launch systems, for which mass efficiency, certification speed, and interflight survivability of composite payload fairings have become decisive engineering and economic constraints. The aim of the monograph is to develop and substantiate an integrated analytical framework for predicting residual life, defect evolution, and safe operating margins in large-scale orthotropic shell structures under stochastic acoustic excitation. The scientific novelty lies in the synthesis of hybrid FE-SEA vibroacoustic modeling, stochastic fracture mechanics, XFEM/VCCT-based defect-growth simulation, and nondestructive-evaluation data fusion within a single closed assessment cycle. The principal conclusion is that deterministic metallic-style safety approaches are inadequate for heterogeneous composites; instead, probabilistic life prediction enables more credible certification, targeted inspection planning, reduced unnecessary mass, and a justified extension of reusable fairing service life without compromising mission safety. The monograph will be useful for researchers, design engineers, certification specialists, and graduate students in aerospace structures and composite mechanics.

Abbasi, V., Ahmadi, M., Mohtarami, E., Karimi, J., & Saberi, F. (2024). Experimental and numerical failure mechanism evaluation of anisotropic rocks using extended finite element method. Theoretical and Applied Fracture Mechanics, 131, 104411. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tafmec.2024.104411

Adams, F. D., & Engle, R. M. (1985). A Damage Tolerance Approach for Structural Integrity of Aerospace Vehicles. In L. W. Masters (Ed.), Problems in Service Life Prediction of Building and Construction Materials (pp. 93–109). Springer Netherlands. https://doi.org/10.1007/9789400951259_6

Ahn, B., & Lee, S. (2022). Integrated Acoustic Analysis of Payload Fairing Using an FE-SEA Hybrid Method. International Journal of Aeronautical and Space Sciences, 24(1), 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42405-022-00500-4

Alam, P., Mamalis, D., Robert, C., Floreani, C., & Ó Brádaigh, C. M. (2019). The fatigue of carbon fibre reinforced plastics - A review. Composites Part B: Engineering, 166, 555–579. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesb.2019.02.016

Alamry, A. (2024). Fatigue Damage and Analysis of Laminated Composites: A State-of-the-art. Journal of Engineering Research, 13(3), 2066–2076. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jer.2024.09.006

Ansys. (n.d.). Acoustic Analysis Guide . Ansys. Retrieved March 3, 2026, from https://ansyshelp.ansys.com/public/account/secured?returnurl=//////Views/Secured/corp/v242/en/ans_acous/ans_acous.html

Ayatollahi, M. R., Nejati, M., & Ghouli, S. (2021). Crack tip fields in anisotropic planes: a review. International Journal of Fracture, 234, 113–139. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10704-021-00559-2

Babaevskiy, P. G., Salienko, N. V., & Shatalin, A. A. (2024). Experimental Assessment of the Adequacy of Numerical Modeling of the Interlayer Crack Resistance of a Laminate Glass-Epoxy Composite under Combined Loading Mode I/II. Inorganic Materials: Applied Research, 15(5), 1558–1564. https://doi.org/10.1134/s2075113324701260

Bi, S., Huang, Y., & Wang, H. (2024). General analytical solution for stress intensity factors of two asymmetrical radial cracks emanating from a single hole in an infinite isotropic plate. Thin-Walled Structures, 208, 112759. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tws.2024.112759

Bogenfeld, R., Freund, S., Dähne, S., Wunderlich, T., & Wille, T. (2024). Damage tolerance allowable calculation for the aircraft design with static ultimate load. Composite Structures, 329, 117803. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compstruct.2023.117803

Borgaonkar, A., Mandale, M., Potdar, S., & Chaitanya, Ch Sri. (2021). Statistical Energy Analysis Parameters Investigation of Composite Specimens Employing Theoretical and Experimental Approach. In S. Sahoo (Ed.), Recent Advances in Layered Materials and Structures (pp. 307–330). Springer Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/9789813345508_12

Brown, M. (2020, August 22). SpaceX: Elon Musk breaks down the costs of reusable rockets. Inverse. https://www.inverse.com/innovation/spacex-elon-musk-falcon-9-economics

Calabuig, G. J. D., Wilson, A., Bi, S., Vasile, M., Sippel, M., & Tajmar, M. (2024). Environmental life cycle assessment of reusable launch vehicle fleets: Large climate impact driven by rocket exhaust emissions. Acta Astronautica, 221, 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actaastro.2024.05.009

Cao, M., Zheng, X., Yan, L., & Ma, W. (2025). A Rationalized Enhancement of the Tsai-Wu Failure Criterion Considering the Stress States of Fibers and Matrix Simultaneously for the Bridging Model. Acta Mechanica Solida Sinica. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10338-025-00670-0

Chaudhari, T. S., Mathews, N. G., Mishra, A. K., Sahasrabuddhe, H. P., & Jaya, B. N. (2021). Energy Release Rate Formulations for Non-conventional Fracture Test Geometries. JOM, 73(6), 1597–1606. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11837-021-04637-7

Cheng, X., Qi, H., Wu, Z., Zhao, L., Cech, M., & Hu, X. (2024). Automated Detection of Delamination Defects in Composite Laminates from Ultrasonic Images Based on Object Detection Networks. Journal of Nondestructive Evaluation, 43(3), 94. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10921-024-01116-2

Chiarelli, M. R. (2025). Dynamic Response of Beams Under Random Loads. Mathematics, 13(8), 1322. https://doi.org/10.3390/math13081322

Coherent Market Insights. (2025). Reusable Launch Vehicle Market. Coherent Market Insights. https://www.coherentmarketinsights.com/industry-reports/reusable-launch-vehicle-market

Dash, B., Mahapatra, T. R., Mishra, P., Mishra, D., & R, M. S. (2025). A Review of Computational Methods for Vibroacoustic Analysis of Advanced Material Structures. Archives of Computational Methods in Engineering, 32(4), 2187–2211. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11831024102045

Deng, J., Zhou, J., Wu, T., Liu, Z., & Wu, Z. (2023). Review and Assessment of Fatigue Delamination Damage of Laminated Composite Structures. Materials, 16(24), 7677. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16247677

Ding, S., Zhou, H., Liu, J., Zhang, X., & Li, G. (2023). Review of the development of the probabilistic damage tolerance assessment of life-limited parts in compliance with the airworthiness regulations. Propulsion and Power Research, 12(3), 297–321. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jppr.2023.08.001

Dinkler, D., Kowalsky, U., Dinkler, D., & Kowalsky, U. (2024). Isoparametric Elements. In Introduction to Finite Element Methods (pp. 215–228). Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden. https://doi.org/10.1007/9783658427429_12

Dirlik, T., & Benasciutti, D. (2021). Dirlik and Tovo-Benasciutti Spectral Methods in Vibration Fatigue: A Review with a Historical Perspective. Metals, 11(9), 1333. https://doi.org/10.3390/met11091333

Dróżdż, A., Niegodajew, P., Romańczyk, M., & Elsner, W. (2023). Convection velocity in turbulent boundary layers under adverse pressure gradient. Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science, 145, 110900. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.expthermflusci.2023.110900

Du, T., Qin, T., Li, D., Wei, W., Zhang, J., Meng, Q., & Miao, X. (2025). Lifecycle Cost Estimation and Critical Parameters Analysis for Reusable Launch Vehicle. Advances in Astronautics, 8(2), 89–106. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42423-025-00187-1

Elhajjar, R. (2025). Fat-tailed failure strength distributions and manufacturing defects in advanced composites. Scientific Reports, 15, 25977. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-06693-4

Escartí-Guillem, M. S., Garcia-Raffi, L. M., & Hoyas, S. (2024). Review of launcher lift-off noise prediction and mitigation. Results in Engineering, 23, 102679. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rineng.2024.102679

Escartí-Guillem, M. S., Hoyas, S., & García-Raffi, L. M. (2023). Deflector shape impact on aero-acoustic noise generation and propagation. Acta Astronautica, 213, 385–391. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actaastro.2023.09.005

Fakoor, M., Ghodsi, S., Izadi, S. M. H., & Daneshjoo, Z. (2025). Exploring Fracture Toughness in the Damage Zone of Fiber-Reinforced Composites: A Study on Crack Orientation Effects. Arabian Journal for Science and Engineering. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13369-025-10272-0

Fu, Y., & Yao, X. (2022). A review on manufacturing defects and their detection of fiber reinforced resin matrix composites. Composites Part C: Open Access, 8, 100276. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcomc.2022.100276

Gao, X., Sitharam, M., & Roitberg, A. E. (2020). Bounds on the Jensen Gap, and Implications for Mean-Concentrated Distributions. ArXiv. https://arxiv.org/abs/1712.05267

Gee, K. L., Hart, G. W., Cunningham, C. F., Anderson, M. C., Bassett, M. S., Mathews, L. T., Durrant, J. T., Moats, L. T., Coyle, W. L., Kellison, M. S., & Kuffskie, M. J. (2023). Space Launch System acoustics: Far-field noise measurements of the Artemis-I launch. JASA Express Letters, 3(2), 023601. https://doi.org/10.1121/10.0016878

GlobeNewswire. (2025, June 13). Reusable Launch Vehicle Research Report 2025-2034. GlobeNewswire. https://www.globenewswire.com/news-release/2025/06/13/3098898/28124/en/Reusable-Launch-Vehicle-Research-Report-2025-2034-Asia-and-Europe-Step-Up-in-Global-RLV-Market-with-Innovative-Prototypes.html

Gümüş, M. S., Erdemir, A., Alver, V., & Kalyoncu, M. (2021). Experimental evaluation of different spectral methods for damage estimation of an electrical panel bracket mounted on a military wheeled vehicle. Journal of Mechanical Science and Technology, 35(12), 5561–5569. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12206-021-1127-6

Guo, F., Li, Y., Chen, Y., Liu, P., & Wang, X. (2025). Investigation of the Stress Intensity Factor in Heterogeneous Materials Based on the Postprocessing Routine of Commercial Finite Element Software. Applied Sciences, 15(11), 5827. https://doi.org/10.3390/app15115827

Hoole, J., Sartor, P., Booker, J., Cooper, J., Gogouvitis, Xenofon V, Ghouali, A., & Kyle, S. R. (2020). A Framework to Implement Probabilistic Fatigue Design of SafeLife Components. In A. Niepokolczycki & J. Komorowski (Eds.), ICAF 2019 – Structural Integrity in the Age of Additive Manufacturing (pp. 321–335). Springer International Publishing.

Huang, T., & Bobyr, M. (2023). A Review of Delamination Damage of Composite Materials. Journal of Composites Science, 7(11), 468. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs7110468

Hughes, W., Mcnelis, A., & Mcnelis, M. (2014). Acoustic Test Characterization of Melamine Foam for Usage in NASA’s Payload Fairing Acoustic Attenuation Systems. https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/20150006719/downloads/20150006719.pdf

Hwu, C., & Becker, W. (2022). Stroh formalism for various types of materials and deformations. Journal of Mechanics, 38, 433–444. https://doi.org/10.1093/jom/ufac031

JAXA. (2022). Technical Standard for High-Pressure Gas Equipment for Space Use (JERG-0-001F(E)). JAXA. https://sma.jaxa.jp/TechDoc/Docs/E_JAXA-JERG-0-001F.pdf

Kaddaha, M. A., Younes, R., & Lafon, P. (2021). Homogenization Method to Calculate the Stiffness Matrix of Laminated Composites. Eng, 2(4), 416–434. https://doi.org/10.3390/eng2040026

Kalariya, Y., Beemaraj, S. B., & Salvi, A. (2023). Design and Optimization of Manufacturing Process of Polymer Composites Through Multiscale Cure Analysis and NSGA-II. Integrating Materials and Manufacturing Innovation, 12(4), 321–337. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40192-023-00316-4

Kang, S.-Y., Jo, M.-S., Choi, J.-Y., & Yang, S. S. (2025). Cost Effectiveness of Reusable Launch Vehicles Depending on the Payload Capacity. Aerospace, 12(5), 364–364. https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace12050364

Kim, S.-J., Lee, S., & Hwang, I. (2022). A Methodology to Determine Composite Material Allowables and Design Values Using Building Block Approach. Journal of the Korean Society for Aeronautical & Space Sciences, 50(6), 377–384. https://doi.org/10.5139/jksas.2022.50.6.377

Kukwi, T., Shan, C., Pengfei, L., Zhang, B., Leiyang, G., & Wang, Z. (2025). Continuous Improvement in Composite Manufacturing: A Review of Automated Fiber Placement Process Evolution and Future Research Prospects. Applied Composite Materials, 32, 1267–1314. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10443-025-10325-5

Kulkarni, N. M., & Lal, A. (2024). Effect of random variation in input parameter on cracked orthotropic plate using extended isogeometric analysis (XIGA) under thermomechanical loading. Curved and Layered Structures, 11(1). https://doi.org/10.1515/cls-2024-0012

Li, Z., Gao, Z., & Liu, Y. (2024). Enriched Constant Elements in the Boundary Element Method for Solving 2D Acoustic Problems at Higher Frequencies. Computer Modeling in Engineering & Sciences, 138(3), 2159–2175. https://doi.org/10.32604/cmes.2023.030920

Liu, L., Ripamonti, F., Corradi, R., & Rao, Z. (2022). On the experimental vibroacoustic modal analysis of a plate-cavity system. Mechanical Systems and Signal Processing, 180, 109459. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ymssp.2022.109459

Liu, R., Yu, Z., & Nasonov, F. (2023). Evaluations on VCCT and CZM methods of delamination propagation simulation for composite specimens. Aerospace Systems, 6(4), 621–632. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42401-023-00231-8

Lv, F., Zhou, C.-Y., Cheng, R.-J., Miao, X.-T., & He, X.-H. (2018). A numerical analysis based on M-integral about the interaction of parallel surface cracks in an infinite plate. Theoretical and Applied Fracture Mechanics, 96, 370–379. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tafmec.2018.05.012

Maierhofer, J., Pippan, R., & Gänser, H.-P. . (2014). Modified NASGRO equation for physically short cracks. International Journal of Fatigue, 59, 200–207. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijfatigue.2013.08.019

Mamat, R., Rashid, M. I. M., Syahir, A. Z., Yusop, A. F., & Tamimi, A. (2025). Carbon fibre for applications in aerospace: A review. Journal of Alloys and Metallurgical Systems, 12, 100227. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jalmes.2025.100227

Mishra, N. K., Harshitha, G., Reddy, G. Vamshi., Anirudh, P., Aashritha, V., & Govind, K. (2023). Computational study on rocket payload fairing. Materials Today: Proceedings, In Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2023.06.244

Murčinková, Z., Postawa, P., & Winczek, J. (2022). Parameters Influence on the Dynamic Properties of Polymer-Matrix Composites Reinforced by Fibres, Particles, and Hybrids. Polymers (Basel), 14(15), 3060. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14153060

Nair, S., Dasari, A., Yue, C., & Narasimalu, S. (2017). Failure Behavior of Unidirectional Composites under Compression Loading: Effect of Fiber Waviness. Materials, 10(8), 909. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma10080909

NASA. (2023). Nondestructive evaluation requirements for fracture-critical metallic components (NASA-STD-5009C). NASA. https://standards.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/standards/NASA/C/0/2023-08-03-NASA-STD-5009C-Approved.pdf

NASA. (2025). Fracture Control Requirements for Spaceflight Hardware (NASA-STD-5019A w/CHANGE 4). https://standards.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/standards/NASA/w/CHANGE-4/4/NASA-STD-5019A-w-Change-4-Revalidated-2025-09-05.pdf

Parker, P., Koshti, A., Forsyth, D., Suits, M., Walker, J., & Prosser, W. (2023). NASA NDE Fracture Critical Detectable Flaw Sizes History and Methodology. Proceedings of 31st ICAF Symposium. https://www.icaf.aero/icaf2023/proceedings/documents/12.pdf

Pazhani, A., Salman, S. S., Venkatraman, M., Patel, A., Xavior, M. A., Batako, A., Paulsamy, J., & Jayaseelan, J. (2024). Dynamic FEA Analysis of the Super Lightweight External Cryogenic Fuel Tank (SLWT) Made of Aluminium Alloy 2195–Graphene Nano Composite for Launch Vehicle Aerospace Application. Journal of Composites Science, 8(7), 260. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs8070260

Peishi, Y., Junhua, Z., & Wanlin, G. (2021). Threedimensional Damage Tolerance Design: Outofplane Constraint Theory and Fatigue/Fracture Criteria. Journal of Mechanical Engineering, 57(16), 87–105. https://doi.org/10.3901/JME.2021.16.087

Pelekis, S., Koutroubas, T., Blika, A., Berdelis, A., Karakolis, E., Ntanos, C., Spiliotis, E., & Askounis, D. (2025). Adversarial machine learning: a review of methods, tools, and critical industry sectors. Artificial Intelligence Review, 58(8), 226. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10462025111474

Raju, I. S., Elliott, K. B., Hampton, R. W., Knight, N. F., Aggarwal, P., Engelstad, S. P., & Chang, J. B. (2010). Comparison of Requirements for Composite Structures for Aircraft and Space Applications . Proceedings of Bangalore Composites Conference, 1–15. https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/20110005521/downloads/20110005521.pdf

Russell, D. A. (n.d.). Dispersion of Flexural Waves. PSU. Retrieved March 7, 2026, from https://www.acs.psu.edu/drussell/Demos/Dispersion/Flexural.html

Saouma, V. E., & Amin, H. M. (2021). Finite Element Modeling of Cracks. In Aging, Shaking, and Cracking of Infrastructures: From Mechanics to Concrete Dams and Nuclear Structures (pp. 317–350). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/9783030574345_14

Sayyad, A. S., Ghugal, Y. M., & Kant, T. (2022). Flexural mode, thickness-shear mode and thickness-twist mode frequencies of laminated composite shells of double curvature. Composite Structures, 291, 115577. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compstruct.2022.115577

Shearer, L., & Bittinger, S. (2022, June 28). Payload Fairing Acoustic Trade Study: Fill Effect Modeling. NASA. https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/20220008036

Shi, F.-T., Shang, D.-G., Wu, S.-D., Hao, G.-C., Zhou, C., Ma, J.-X., & Ma, Z.-P. (2025). Fatigue life prediction method based on Rayleigh model modified with spectral width coefficient for arbitrary bandwidth signals. Measurement, 251, 117317. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.measurement.2025.117317

Shimazaki, S., & Shi, Q. (2021). A new method to specify the mitigated acoustic test conditions from flight telemetry based on the equivalence of vibro-acoustic response. CEAS Space Journal, 15, 329–342. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12567-021-00410-3

Shonkwiler, S., Li, X., Fenrich, R., & McMains, S. (2023). Deep reinforcement learning for stacking sequence optimization of composite laminates. Manufacturing Letters, 35, 1203–1213. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mfglet.2023.08.133

Space Foundation. (2025, July 22). The Space Report 2025. Space Foundation. https://www.spacefoundation.org/2025/07/22/the-space-report-2025-q2/

Tafreshi, A. (2004). Delamination buckling and postbuckling in composite cylindrical shells under external pressure. Thin-Walled Structures, 42(10), 1379–1404. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tws.2004.05.008

Taheri, F., Ghiaskar, A., & Chowdhury, S. A. (2025). Flexural and Shear Behavior of Basalt-Recyclamine Composites: A Comparative Study with Conventional Epoxy Systems. Applied Composite Materials, 32(6), 2687–2716. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10443-025-10370-0

Taheri, H., & Hassen, A. (2019). Nondestructive Ultrasonic Inspection of Composite Materials: a Comparative Advantage of Phased Array Ultrasonic. Applied Sciences, 9(8), 1628. https://doi.org/10.3390/app9081628

Tai, J. L., Thariq, M., Shahar, F. S., Yidris, N., & Basri, A. A. (2024). Exploring Probability of Detection (POD) Analysis in Nondestructive Testing: A Comprehensive Review and Potential Applications in Phased Array Ultrasonic Corrosion Mapping. Pertanika Journal of Science & Technology, 32(5), 2165–2191. https://doi.org/10.47836/pjst.32.5.14

Tavaf, V., & Banerjee, S. (2022). Effect of Defects Part I: Degradation of Constitutive Coefficients as an Input to the Composite Failure Model with Microvoids and Porosity. Journal of Composites Science, 6(2), 37. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs6020037

Towner, R., & Band, J. (2012). An Analysis Technique/Automated Tool for Comparing and Tracking Analysis Modes of Different Finite Element Models. 53rd AIAA/ASME/ASCE/AHS/ASC Structures, Structural Dynamics and Materials Conference. https://doi.org/10.2514/6.2012-1987

Upganlawar, S., & Anasane, Sandeep S. (2026). Enhanced Payload Fairing Design: Integrating CFRP and GFRP for Optimal Performance. In G. Raghavendra, K. B. Aswani, & M. Gupta (Eds.), Recent Trends in Manufacturing Engineering (pp. 297–307). Springer Nature Singapore.

Van hoorickx, C., & Reynders, E. P. B. (2022). Numerical realization of diffuse sound pressure fields using prolate spheroidal wave functions. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 151(3), 1710–1721. https://doi.org/10.1121/10.0009764

Vellwock, A. E., & Libonati, F. (2024). XFEM for Composites, Biological, and Bioinspired Materials: A Review. Materials, 17(3), 745. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17030745

Venkat, S. S., Scheffler, S., Anilkumar, P. M., Baranger, E., & Rolfes, R. (2025). Effect of delamination defects on buckling and growth characteristics in composite laminates. Composite Structures, 369, 119245. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compstruct.2025.119245

Wagenblast, B. N., & Bettinger, R. A. (2024). Statistical reliability estimation of space launch vehicles: 2000–2022. Journal of Space Safety Engineering, 11(4), 573–589. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsse.2024.10.001

Wang, K., Wang, J., Liu, Z., Zhang, S., Zhang, B., & Quan, W. (2024). Thermal modal analysis of hypersonic composite wing on transient aerodynamic heating. Scientific Reports, 14, 11012. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-61900-y

Yang, W., Feng, X.-Q., & Gao, H. (2026). Outstanding issues and emerging frontiers in fracture mechanics. International Journal of Fracture, 250, 10. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10704-025-00907-6

Zotter, F., Riedel, S., Gölles, L., & Frank, M. (2024). Diffuse sound field synthesis: Ideal source layers. Acta Acustica, 8, 34. https://doi.org/10.1051/aacus/2024023