Vol. 8 No. 08 (2026): Volume 08 Issue 08

This article examines the problem of determining the labour-law status of persons performing work through digital labour platforms under conditions of algorithmic management. ILO Convention No. 193, ILO Recommendation No. 198, Directive (EU) 2024/2831, the Labour Code of the Republic of Uzbekistan, and relevant national rules are examined comparatively. It is argued that, in the legal assessment of the relationship, priority should be given not to the title of the contract or the formal status of self-employment, but to factual indicators such as the actual organisation of work, remuneration, allocation of tasks, ratings, monitoring, sanctions, and deactivation. “Algorithmic subordination” is proposed not as an independent indicator of an employment relationship, but as a set of criteria demonstrating that the platform’s organisational and managerial authority is exercised through digital means. A two-stage legal approach is proposed for Uzbekistan: first, to provide all persons performing work through platforms with basic guarantees of algorithmic transparency and effective protection; and second, where facts evidencing management and control are established, to introduce a mechanism for determining the existence of an employment relationship on the basis of the factual circumstances.

This article examines the strategic function performed by the Organization of Turkic States (OTS) in Türkiye’s Central Asia policy in light of institutional developments between 2021 and 2026. It aims to identify the organization’s internal capabilities, external environment, and capacity to deepen cooperation between Türkiye and the Central Asian states. Within a qualitative case-study design, official declarations, strategic documents, reports by international organizations, and peer-reviewed scholarship are assessed through document analysis and process tracing. SWOT factors are coded across political-institutional, trade-transport, energy, security, and cultural-humanitarian dimensions and converted into strategic combinations through a TOWS matrix. The findings identify shared identity, Trans-Caspian connectivity, and a networked institutional ecosystem as the organization’s principal strengths, while consensus-based governance, limited intra-organizational trade, logistical bottlenecks, and divergent foreign-policy orientations constrain implementation capacity. Its theoretical contribution is the model of “selective functional institutionalization”, identity generates political trust, whereas sustainable outcomes depend on specific regimes, measurable indicators, and shared ownership among member states.

The Strait of Hormuz is one of the world's most critical maritime choke points, through which approximately one-fifth of global petroleum liquids flow daily. In recent years, state and non-state actors have increasingly shifted from traditional kinetic force toward "lawfare"—the strategic exploitation of legal frameworks, maritime jurisdictional claims, and regulatory enforcement to achieve geopolitical and strategic objectives. This article investigates the operationalization of lawfare within the Strait of Hormuz under international law, particularly the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS). Utilizing a qualitative legal-doctrinal and comparative empirical methodology, this paper examines how coastal states leverage ambiguous provisions governing innocent passage, transit passage, state security exceptions, and environmental regulation to justify ship seizures, boarding operations, and navigation disruptions. The findings indicate that legal gray zones surrounding sovereign immunity, marine environmental protection, and asymmetric interpretation of UNCLOS provisions serve as force multipliers in gray-zone conflicts. The study concludes that mitigating maritime lawfare requires strengthening international dispute settlement mechanisms, clarifying transit passage enforcement thresholds, and enhancing multilateral maritime domain awareness.

Not every real estate deal in Uzbekistan fits comfortably inside the Civil Code’s general rules on sale, exchange, and donation. This article looks at four situations where those general rules run thin: the lifetime maintenance contract, through which an elderly owner trades property for ongoing care; transactions involving foreign buyers, whose rights are limited by restrictions spread across several unconnected laws; special categories of property: farmland, heritage buildings, and shared space in apartment blocks, where sectoral rules and the general alienation regime do not line up; and the gap between civil and tax law that encourages parties to understate the price they actually paid. Drawing on comparisons, the article proposes a more protective chapter, a single consolidated law on foreign ownership.

This article analyzes the impact of United States policy in the Middle East on the global oil and gas market in 2026. It examines the US–Iran confrontation, the situation in the Strait of Hormuz, economic sanctions, military tensions, and US oil and LNG exports. The article also considers the effects of regional instability on energy prices, tanker traffic, and global energy security.