Principal Directions for Improving the Labor Legislation of The Republic of Uzbekistan With Due Regard for The Interests of Employers and Business

This article presents a research-and-practice analysis of systemic enforcement problems of the Labor Code of the Republic of Uzbekistan and related regulatory acts, identified in the practice of large-scale industrial business. Drawing on eight legal conflicts – ranging from the disproportionate financial liability of the employer for delayed payments and the unregulated status of distance learning to the absence of a clear distinction between employment and civil-law contracts – the article substantiates concrete proposals for improving the legislation. The methodological framework is the comparative-legal and formal-legal analysis of the provisions of the legislation of the Republic of Uzbekistan, as well as of the international labor standards of the ILO. The article concludes that a systemic balancing of employee protection and the predictability of the regulatory environment for the employer is necessary as a precondition for the investment attractiveness of the country's economy.

Labor law, Labor Code of the Republic of Uzbekistan, business environment

ILO Convention No. 87 concerning Freedom of Association and Protection of the Right to Organise (San Francisco, 9 July 1948). Ratified by the Republic of Uzbekistan in 2016. URL: https://www.ilo.org/dyn/normlex/en/f?p=NORMLEXPUB:12100:0::NO::P12100_ILO_CODE:C087 (accessed: 30.04.2026);

ILO Convention No. 98 concerning the Application of the Principles of the Right to Organise and to Bargain Collectively (Geneva, 1 July 1949). Ratified by the Republic of Uzbekistan. URL: https://www.ilo.org/dyn/normlex/en/f?p=NORMLEXPUB:12100:0::NO::P12100_ILO_CODE:C098 (accessed: 30.04.2026).

Recommendation concerning Paid Educational Leave, 1974 (No. 148). Adopted by the General Conference of the International Labour Organization at its 59th session, Geneva, 24 June 1974. URL: https://www.ilo.org/dyn/normlex/en/f?p=NORMLEXPUB:12100:0::NO::P12100_INSTRUMENT_ID:312486 (accessed: 30.04.2026).

Recommendation concerning the Employment Relationship, 2006 (No. 198). Adopted by the General Conference of the International Labour Organization at its 95th session, Geneva, 15 June 2006. URL: https://www.ilo.org/dyn/normlex/en/f?p=NORMLEXPUB:12100:0::NO::P12100_INSTRUM ENT_IDENT_ID:312535 (accessed: 30.04.2026).

Labor Code of the Republic of Uzbekistan, approved by the Law of the Republic of Uzbekistan of 28 October 2022 No. ZRU-798. Entered into force on 30 April 2023 // National Database of Legislation of the Republic of Uzbekistan. URL: https://lex.uz/docs/-6257288 (accessed: 30.04.2026).

Civil Code of the Republic of Uzbekistan (Part One) of 21 December 1995 // National Database of Legislation of the Republic of Uzbekistan. URL: https://lex.uz/docs/-180550 (accessed: 30.04.2026).

Civil Procedure Code of the Republic of Uzbekistan of 22 January 2018 No. ZRU-460 // National Database of Legislation of the Republic of Uzbekistan. URL: https://lex.uz/docs/-3517334. (accessed: 30.04.2026).

Code of the Republic of Uzbekistan on Administrative Liability of 22 September 1994 No. 2015-XII (as amended and supplemented) // National Database of Legislation of the Republic of Uzbekistan. URL: https://lex.uz/docs/-97664 (accessed: 30.04.2026).

Law of the Republic of Uzbekistan of 29 August 1998 No. 670-I «On the Contractual and Legal Framework for the Activities of Economic Entities» // National Database of Legislation of the Republic of Uzbekistan. URL: https://lex.uz/docs/-15760 (accessed: 30.04.2026).

Law of the Republic of Uzbekistan of 23 September 2020 No. ZRU-637 «On Education» (new edition) // National Database of Legislation of the Republic of Uzbekistan. URL: https://lex.uz/docs/-5013009 (accessed: 30.04.2026).

Law of the Republic of Uzbekistan of 6 December 2019 No. ZRU-588 «On Trade Unions» (new edition) // National Database of Legislation of the Republic of Uzbekistan. URL: https://lex.uz/docs/-4633262 (accessed: 30.04.2026).

Decree of the President of the Republic of Uzbekistan of 16 February 2026 No. UP-21 «On Additional Measures for the Consistent Continuation and Advancement to a New Stage of Reforms within the Priority Directions for the Country's Development until 2030» // National Database of Legislation, 17.02.2026, No. 06/26/21/0145 URL: https://lex.uz/ru/docs/8050774 (accessed: 30.04.2026).

Decree of the President of the Republic of Uzbekistan of 28 January 2022 No. UP-60 «On the Development Strategy of New Uzbekistan for 2022–2026» // National Database of Legislation, 29.01.2022, No. 06/22/60/0082; 18.03.2022, No. 06/22/89/0227; 10.02.2023, No. 06/23/21/0085; 03.01.2024, No. 06/24/221/ URL: https://lex.uz/uz/docs/5841077?ONDATE=18.03.2022 (accessed: 30.04.2026).

Decree of the President of the Republic of Uzbekistan of 6 November 2020 No. UP-6108 «On Approval of the Concept for the Development of the System of Higher Education of the Republic of Uzbekistan until 2030» // National Database of Legislation of the Republic of Uzbekistan. URL: https://lex.uz/docs/-5077745.

Decree of the President of the Republic of Uzbekistan «On Additional Measures to Improve the System of Labor Relations and Vocational Training and to Incentivize Employers» of 04.08.2025 No. UP-126 // National Database of Legislation URL: https://lex.uz/ru/docs/7675218 (accessed: 30.04.2026).

Regulation on the Organization of Dual Education in the System of Higher Education. Annex to the Resolution of the Cabinet of Ministers of the Republic of Uzbekistan «On Measures to Organize Dual Education in the System of Higher Education» of 16.01.2025 No. 14 // National Database of Legislation of the Republic of Uzbekistan.

Resolution of the Cabinet of Ministers of the Republic of Uzbekistan of 3 October 2022 No. 559 «On Measures to Introduce the Distance-Learning Form in Higher Educational Organizations» // National Database of Legislation of the Republic of Uzbekistan. URL: https://lex.uz/docs/-6230066 (accessed: 30.04.2026).

Resolution of the Cabinet of Ministers of the Republic of Uzbekistan «On Measures to Organize Dual Education in the System of Vocational Education» of 29.03.2021 No. 163 // National Database of Legislation of the Republic of Uzbekistan. URL: https://lex.uz/ru/docs/5346217 (accessed: 30.04.2026).

Resolution of the Plenum of the Supreme Court of the Republic of Uzbekistan of 20 November 2023 No. 26 «On the Practice of the Courts' Application of Legislation Governing the Termination of the Employment Contract» // National Database of Legislation of the Republic of Uzbekistan. URL: https://lex.uz/ru/docs/6684617 (accessed: 30.04.2026).

Araki T. Labor and Employment Law in Japan. – Tokyo: The Japan Institute of Labor, 2002. – 234 p. – ISBN 4-538-71018-0.

Asian Development Bank (ADB). Country Partnership Strategy Uzbekistan, 2024–2028. – August 2024.

Asian Development Bank. Basic Statistics 2025: Uzbekistan poverty and social indicators.

Barnard C. EU Employment Law. – 4th ed. – Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012. – 800 p. (Oxford European Union Law Library). – ISBN 978-0-19-969292-7.

Blanpain R. (ed.) Comparative Labour Law and Industrial Relations. – 11th ed. – Kluwer Law International, 2014. – 1100 p.

Collins H. Employment Law. – 2nd ed. – Oxford: Oxford University Press (Clarendon Law Series), 2010. – 288 p.

Colneric N. Time Limits and the Right to Effective Judicial Protection... // European Labour Law Journal. – 2011. – Vol. 2. – No. 3. – P. 211–228.

Cooney S., Biddulph S., Zhu Y. Law and Fair Work in China. – Abingdon, UK; New York: Routledge, 2013. – xiii + 189 p. (Routledge Contemporary China Series). – ISBN 978-0-415-67407-7. – DOI: 10.4324/9780203073001.

Countouris N., Freedland M. (eds.) Resocialising Europe in a Time of Crisis. – Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2013. – 490 p.

Davidov G. A Purposive Approach to Labour Law. – Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2016. – xi. + 289 p.

Davies P., Freedland M. Labour Legislation and Public Policy: A Contemporary History. – Oxford: Clarendon Press; Oxford University Press, 1993. – xxxiv + 678 p. – ISBN 978-0-19-825681-7.

Deakin S., Wilkinson F. The Law of the Labour Market. – Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005. – 420 p.

Deakin S., Morris G.S. Labour Law. – 6th ed. – Oxford; Portland, OR: Hart Publishing, 2012. – xcvi + 1264 p. – ISBN 978-1-84946-341-6.

Estlund C. A New Deal for China's Workers? – Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2017. – 320 p. – ISBN 978-0-674-97195-2.

Euler D. Germany's Dual Vocational Training System. – Gütersloh: Bertelsmann Stiftung, 2013. – 80 p. – ISBN 978-3-86793-500-9.

European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD). Transition Report 2024–25: Uzbekistan country assessment.

European External Action Service. Enhanced Partnership and Cooperation Agreement (EPCA) EU–Uzbekistan, signed 24 October 2025.

Freedland M., Kountouris N. The Legal Construction of Personal Work Relations. – Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011. – 432 p. – ISBN 978-0-19-955175-0.

Hepple B. Labour Laws and Global Trade. – Oxford; Portland, OR: Hart Publishing, 2005. – xxxvi + 309 p. – ISBN 978-1-84113-410-1.

International Labour Organization. Decent Work Country Programme for the Republic of Uzbekistan 2021–2025.

International Labour Organization. Towards Full and Productive Employment in Uzbekistan: Achievements and Challenges. – 2021.

International Labour Organization. Project «Transition from Informal to Formal Employment»: Uzbekistan, 2021–2023.

International Labour Organization. Gender-responsive diagnostics of the informal economy and employment in Uzbekistan. – 2023.

International Monetary Fund. Republic of Uzbekistan: 2024 Article IV Consultation. – Staff Concluding Statement, May 2024.

International Monetary Fund. Republic of Uzbekistan: 2025 Article IV Consultation. – IMF Country Report No. 25/144, June 2025.

International Monetary Fund. Republic of Uzbekistan: 2026 Article IV Consultation. – Staff Concluding Statement, April 2026.

ILO. Paid Educational Leave: Report VII. – Geneva: ILO, 1974. – 98 p.

Kahn-Freund O. On Uses and Misuses of Comparative Law // Modern Law Review. – 1974. – Vol. 37, No. 1. – P. 1–27.

Kahn-Freund O. Labour and the Law. – 3rd ed. – London: Stevens & Sons, 1983. – 360 p.

OECD. OECD Employment Outlook 2019. – Paris: OECD Publishing, 2019. – 326 p.

Ozaki M. (ed.) Negotiating Flexibility. – Geneva: ILO, 1999. – 196 p.

Restatement of Labour Law in Europe. Vol. I: The Concept of Employee / ed. by B. Waas, G. Heerma van Voss. – Oxford; Portland, OR: Hart Publishing, 2017. – 768 p. – ISBN 978-1-50991-013-9.

UNDP. Informal Employment in Uzbekistan: Tashkent Report. – 2025.

UN Joint SDG Fund. Global Accelerator on Jobs and Social Protection: Uzbekistan as Pathfinder Country, 2024.

Wang C. Labour Law and the Construction of the Rule of Law in China // China Legal Science. – 2018. – Vol. 6. – No. 2. – P. 39–58.

World Bank. Doing Business 2020. – Washington, DC: World Bank, 2020. – 241 p.

World Bank. Country Gender Assessment Report: Uzbekistan. – June 2024.

World Bank. Country Partnership Framework for the Republic of Uzbekistan FY2022–2026.

Servais J.-M. International Labour Law. – 5th ed. – Kluwer Law International, 2017. – 420 p.

Supiot A. Beyond Employment: Changes in Work and the Future of Labour Law in Europe. – Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press, 2001. – xii + 245 p. – ISBN 978-0-19-924305-1. – DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780199243051.001.0001.

The European Social Charter and the Employment Relation / ed. by N. Bruun, K. Lörcher, I. Schömann, S. Clauwaert. – Oxford; Portland, OR: Hart Publishing, 2017. – 568 p. – ISBN 978-1-50990-218-9.

Gusov K.N., Lushnikov A.M., Lushnikova M.V. Dogovory v trudovom prave s pozitsiy otraslevogo i mezhotraslevogo podkhodov: monografiya [Contracts in Labor Law from the Standpoint of Sectoral and Cross-Sectoral Approaches: a monograph]. – Moscow: Prospekt, 2014. – 240 p.

Gusov K.N., Tolkunova V.N. Trudovoe pravo Rossii: uchebnik [Labor Law of Russia: a textbook]. – Moscow: Prospekt, 2008. – 496 p.

Lushnikov A.M., Lushnikova M.V. Kurs trudovogo prava: uchebnik: v 2 t. T. 1: Sushchnost trudovogo prava i istoriya ego razvitiya. Trudovye prava v sisteme prav cheloveka. Obshchaya chast [A Course of Labor Law: a textbook: in 2 vols. Vol. 1: The Essence of Labor Law and the History of Its Development. Labor Rights in the System of Human Rights. General Part]. – 2nd ed., rev. and enl. – Moscow: Statut, 2009. – 879 p.

Lyutov N.L. Rossiyskoe trudovoe zakonodatelstvo i mezhdunarodnye trudovye standarty: sootvetstvie i perspektivy sovershenstvovaniya: nauchno-prakticheskoe posobie [Russian Labor Legislation and International Labor Standards: Conformity and Prospects for Improvement: a research-and-practice handbook]. – Moscow: Center for Social and Labor Rights, 2012. – 128 p.

Mukhamedova N.T. Dualnoe obrazovanie… [Dual Education…] // Pravo i obrazovanie [Law and Education]. – 2019. – No. 4. – P. 65–74.

Suleymanova G.V. Trudovoe pravo: uchebnik dlya bakalavrov [Labor Law: a textbook for bachelor's students]. – Moscow: Yustitsiya, 2018. – 412 p.

Khashimov P.Kh. Trudovoe pravo Uzbekistana: istoriya i sovremennost [Labor Law of Uzbekistan: History and the Present Day]. – Tashkent: Adolat, 2015. – 280 p.

Khusanov O.T. Mehnat huquqi: Darslik [Labor Law: a textbook]. – Tashkent: TSUL, 2018. – 360 p.

International Labour Organization (ILO). ILOSTAT Country Profile: Uzbekistan. URL: https://ilostat.ilo.org/data/country-profiles/uzb/

Official website of the Central Bank of the Republic of Uzbekistan. Section «Key Rate». URL: https://cbu.uz/ru/monetary-policy/refinancing-rate/ (accessed: 30.04.2026).

What the Refinancing Rate Is. URL: https://journal.sovcombank.ru/sberezheniya/stavka-refinansirovaniya--chto-eto-takoe (accessed: 30.04.2026).

World Bank. Doing Business 2020: Comparing Business Regulation in 190 Economies. – Washington, DC: World Bank, 2020. URL: https://www.doingbusiness.org.